[194] Arthur did, however, effectively intervene to overturn a court-martial ruling against a black West Point cadet, Johnson Whittaker, after the Judge Advocate General of the Army, David G. Swaim, found the prosecution's case against Whittaker to be illegal and based on racial bias. In the Senate, Republicans take one seat and gain a 38-36 majority (with two seats filled by minor parties). U.S. Presidents and Their Years in Office Quiz, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chester-A-Arthur, National Park Service - Chester A. Arthur House, American History Central - Chester Alan Arthur, United States Senate - Biography of Henry A. Wallace, The White House - Biography of Chester A. Arthur, GlobalSecurity.org - Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885), Chester A. Arthur - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Chester A. Arthur - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up), presidency of the United States of America (1881-1885), vice president of the United States of America (1881-1881). The United States Bureau of Labor is created within the Department of the Interior; an independent Department of Labor will not be created until 1913. In 1871, an era of political machines and patronage, Arthur was named to the powerful position of customs collector for the Port of New York. [200], Shortly after becoming president, Arthur was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a kidney ailment now referred to as nephritis. [227] At the dedication, Secretary of War Elihu Root described Arthur as, "wise in statesmanship and firm and effective in administration," while acknowledging that Arthur was isolated in office and unloved by his own party. Instead, he returned to practicing law, never returning to public service. [3] He appointed Horace Gray and Samuel Blatchford to the Supreme Court. The couple had two children who survived to adulthood: Chester Arthur Jr. (1864-1937) and Ellen Herndon Arthur (1871-1915). ThoughtCo. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. [163] Arthur and Frelinghuysen continued Blaine's efforts to encourage trade among the nations of the Western Hemisphere; a treaty with Mexico providing for reciprocal tariff reductions was signed in 1882 and approved by the Senate in 1884. Moved with family to Schenectady, N.Y., where Arthur continued his education at local lyceum. Public pressure, heightened by the assassination of Garfield, forced an unwieldy Congress to heed the President. Chester Alan Arthur was born on October 5, 1829, in a small log cabin in Fairfield, Vermont. Although Arthur collected the customs duties with integrity, he continued the practice of overstaffing the customhouse with employees whose chief qualification was loyalty to Conkling. The system protected employees against removal for political reasons. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. [79] He was also popular within the Republican party as he efficiently collected campaign assessments from the staff and placed party leaders' friends in jobs as positions became available. [56] Even as his professional life improved, however, Arthur and his wife experienced a personal tragedy as their only child, William, died suddenly that year at the age of two. [45] The two were soon engaged to be married. [104] Arthur and Conkling campaigned vigorously for the Stalwart ticket and, owing partly to a splintering of the Democratic vote, were victorious. Recognizing the disgraceful state of the U.S. Navy, Arthur signs a bill appropriating funds for the Navy's first steel vessels. [49] The office was a patronage appointment of minor importance until the outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861, when New York and the other northern states were faced with raising and equipping armies of a size never before seen in American history. The statue will be placed on Liberty Island, adjacent to Ellis Island off the New Jersey coast. [99] Conkling opposed the confirmation of Merritt and Burt when the Senate reconvened in February 1879, but Merritt was approved by a vote of 3125, as was Burt by 3119, giving Hayes his most significant civil service reform victory. David L. Anderson, "The Diplomacy of Discrimination: Chinese Exclusion, 18761882", New York State Republican Executive Committee, Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, List of presidents of the United States by previous experience, Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, "Rating the Presidents: Washington to Clinton", "Top 10 Forgettable Presidents: Fail to the Chief; Chester A. Arthur", "Then Again: A Vermont politician faces the 'birthers'. The commission's recommendations were ignored, however, as the House Ways and Means Committee, dominated by protectionists, provided a 10% reduction. There he pursued the traditional classical curriculum, supplementing his tuition by teaching at a nearby town during winter vacations. Indeed, given such "perks," Arthur grossed $50,000 a year, a salary equivalent to that of the President of the United States. A Vermont native, he became active in Republican politics in the 1850s as a New York City lawyer. Definition and Examples, Biography of Donald Trump, 45th President of the United States, Presidents Who Served After the Civil War, Biography of Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States, Biography of James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States, Biography of Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States, Biography of James Buchanan, 15th President of the United States, Biography of Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States, The Most Important Inventions of the Industrial Revolution. Arthur signed the Pendleton Act, which banned salary kickbacks and required merit exams for any professional advancement. The Pendleton Civil Service Act occurred during his presidency to reform the corrupt civil service system. Chester A. Arthur was not supposed to be president. . These restraints distinguished him sharply from the stereotype politician. Corrections? He became a lawyer, served as an engineer in the American Civil War, and later became Collector of the Port of New York, where he was responsible for supervising the collecting of import duties on goods coming into the United States. [120] The funds were crucial in the close election, and winning his home state of New York was critical. In 1882 he displayed surprising independence when he vetoed an $18 million rivers and harbours bill that contained ample funds for projects that could be used for political patronage. Your first beer is on the house, compliments of the owner of the Albany Pump Station and a great supporter of Riverkeeper. Updated: June 10, 2019 | Original: October 27, 2009. Intake is a vitally important skill because - to be blunt - there are a lot of cranks out there. All Rights Reserved. [197] The American Indian Wars were winding down, and public sentiment was shifting toward more favorable treatment of Native Americans. She died of pneumonia shortly after the 1880 election, and when Arthur acceded to the presidency, his sister Mary Arthur McElroy acted as White House hostess. [152] To their surprise, he acted quickly to appoint the members of the Civil Service Commission that the law created, naming reformers Dorman Bridgman Eaton, John Milton Gregory, and Leroy D. Thoman as commissioners. [48] The couple had three children: After his marriage, Arthur devoted his efforts to building his law practice, but also found time to engage in Republican party politics. From 1869 to 1870, he served as the chief counsel to the New York City Tax Commission, earning an annual salary of $10,000, a princely sum of money in those daysin 1870, the wages of a skilled worker ranged from $400 to $650 annually. Dedicated Washington Monument, Washington, D.C. Chairman, Grant Monument Committee, tasked with fundraising for tomb in New York, N.Y., for President Ulysses S. Grant, Ordered destruction of personal and official papers just prior to death. Chester Allen Arthur became the twenty-first President of the United States (1881-1885) when James Garfield was assassinated. Previous education supplied by his father. The commission found political favoritism and blatant patronage governing appointments, exposed the practice of salary kickbacks, and charged the port authority with being criminally overstaffed. [102][103] In the state elections of 1879, he and Conkling worked to ensure that the Republican nominees for state offices would be men of Conkling's faction, who had become known as Stalwarts. Two U.S. supply efforts, in 1882 and 1883, to reach the Greely party, ended in dismal failure. "[189], Like his Republican predecessors, Arthur struggled with the question of how his party was to challenge the Democrats in the South and how, if at all, to protect the civil rights of black southerners. May 11, 1886 Accepting the Statue of Liberty Cleveland recommends to Congress that the nation accept France's gift of the Statue of Liberty. Elected to the vice presidency in 1880, Arthur became president after Garfield died following an assassination attempt by a disgruntled job seeker. 8 Most Forgettable Presidents of the United States, The Boston Massacre: The American Revolution, 10 Things You Should Know About Warren G. Harding, 12th President of the United States: General Zachary Taylor. [209] Blatchford accepted, and his nomination was approved by the Senate within two weeks. In the White House, Arthur became known for his sartorial style and taste for fine furnishings. [57] The couple took their son's death hard, and when they had another son, Chester Alan Jr., in 1864, they lavished attention on him. Defeated for the nomination by James G. Blaine, he finished his term, attended the inauguration of Democrat Grover Cleveland, and then returned to New York City, where he died at his home the following year. Vice President Chester A. Arthur becomes the twenty-first President of the United States The assassin, Guiteau, will be hanged on June 30, 1882. In 1877, soon after he was inaugurated, President Rutherford B. Hayes tackled Conkling's political empire. [158] While Arthur was not opposed to internal improvements, the scale of the bill disturbed him, as did its narrow focus on "particular localities," rather than projects that benefited a larger part of the nation. With such goals in mind, he passed his bar exam in 1854 and then, using his father's influence, gained a clerkship in a New York legal firm headed by the prominent Erastus D. Culver. Less than four months later, on July 2, Garfield was shot by Charles Guiteau (1841-1882), a mentally unstable, disgruntled political job seeker, at a train station in Washington, D.C. A small number of Arthur's papers survived and passed to his grandson. He graduated from Union College in 1848 and went on to study law at the now non-existent State and National Law School. [42], When Arthur joined the firm, Culver and New York attorney John Jay (the grandson of the Founding Father John Jay) were pursuing a habeas corpus action against Jonathan Lemmon, a Virginia slaveholder who was passing through New York with his eight slaves. [110] Levi P. Morton, the first choice of Garfield's supporters, consulted with Conkling, who advised him to decline, which he did. The fifth of eight children, Chester had six sisters and one older brother. [131], More troubling was the lack of legal guidance on presidential succession: as Garfield lingered near death, no one was sure who, if anyone, could exercise presidential authority. [196] In 1882, he signed the Edmunds Act into law; the legislation made polygamy a federal crime, barring polygamists both from public office and the right to vote. [85] Sherman ordered a commission led by John Jay to investigate the New York Custom House. [176] Based on the suggestions in the report, Congress appropriated funds, signed into law by Arthur, for the construction of three steel protected cruisers (Atlanta, Boston, and Chicago) and an armed dispatch-steamer (Dolphin), collectively known as the ABCD Ships or the Squadron of Evolution. The murder trial of Charles Guiteau begins. [185] Chandler was determined to accomplish a successful rescue of Greely and to restore the honor of the U.S. Navy. Congress passes a bill repealing the 1862 test oath, which required office holders to swear they had never engaged in illegal or disloyal conduct. [39] While studying law, he continued teaching, moving closer to home by taking a job at a school in North Pownal, Vermont. The gift commemorates the alliance between the two countries during the Revolutionary War. [10] William Arthur also spent a brief time studying law, but while still in Waterville, he departed from both his legal studies and his Presbyterian upbringing to join the Free Will Baptists; he spent the rest of his life as a minister in that sect. [117] Realizing this, they adjusted their approach to claim that Democrats would lower the country's protective tariff, which would allow cheaper manufactured goods to be imported from Europe, and thereby put thousands out of work. A revised version of the Chinese Exclusion Act, which reduces the period of non-immigration to ten years but maintains the ban on Chinese citizenship, becomes law. https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/chester-a-arthur/?utm_source=link, Office of the United States Trade Representative. Arthur, in turn, gave government jobs to Conklings supporters, who contributed part of their salaries to the Republican Party. Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, previously a Union soldier, as well as a representative and governor of Ohio, is publicly sworn in as the nineteenth President of the United States. The territory had been ceded to the United States by Russia in an 1867 treaty. [13] Malvina Stone met William Arthur when Arthur was teaching school in Dunham, Quebec, near the Vermont border. Martin Kelly, M.A., is a history teacher and curriculum developer. Yet it was Arthurs support for the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883) that clearly showed how far he had come from his days as patronage purveyor at the New York customhouse. Later that day he took a train to Long Branch to pay his respects to Garfield and to leave a card of sympathy for his wife, afterwards returning to New York City. He succeeded James Garfield who had been assassinated in 1881. Principal and teacher, High Department of District School, Cohoes, N.Y. His sisters Almeda and Malvina taught at the same school. [172] The nation's military focus over the fifteen years before Garfield and Arthur's election had been on the Indian wars in the Western United States, rather than the high seas, but as the region was increasingly pacified, many in Congress grew concerned at the poor state of the Navy. [44] He won the case, and the verdict led to the desegregation of the New York City streetcar lines.[44]. [164] Legislation required to bring the treaty into force failed in the House, however, rendering it a dead letter. During this time, Arthur joined the Republican Party, which was established by anti-slavery activists in 1854. To counter Conkling's opposition, Hayes bided his time, finally suspending Arthur after Congress had adjourned for the summer. Postal Service and pushed for the modernization of the U.S. Navy. [88] Sherman was less enthusiastic about the reforms than Hayes and Jay, but he approved the commission's report and ordered Arthur to make the personnel reductions. (He suffered from Bright's disease, a then-fatal kidney ailment.) Copyright 2023. He takes the oath privately on March 3rd. In the midterm elections, Democrats gain 50 seats in the House giving them a 197-118 majority (ten remaining seats were filled by minor parties). The act establishes the Republicans as the party in favor of higher protective tariffs. HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. The act was only supposed to halt immigration for 10 years. The Presidency of Chester Arthur spanned the period in United States history that encompasses the events of the Maturation Era or the Gilded Age. Visited correspondent Julia I. In 1878 President Hayes, attempting to reform the Customs House, ousted Arthur. [67] The opposing Democratic machine in New York City, known as Tammany Hall, worked for Grant's opponent, former New York Governor Horatio Seymour; while Grant was victorious in the national vote, Seymour narrowly carried the state of New York. The landmark victory led to a New York law forbidding discrimination in public transportation. [35] One of his first teachers said Arthur was a boy "frank and open in manners and genial in disposition. The original designer, John Roebling, died of an infection caused by an injury he received only days after having secured permission to begin his project. Arthur was the son of William Arthur, a Baptist minister, and Malvina Stone. Chester A. Arthur was born on October 5, 1829, in Fairfield, Vermont. The son of a Baptist preacher who had emigrated from northern Ireland, Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, in 1829. [115], As expected, the election was close. Sadly, she would die of pneumonia before he became president. Under this system, elected officials rewarded their supporters with political appointments in their administrations. Elected vice president on the Republican ticket of 1880, Arthur acceded to the presidency upon the assassination of President James A. Garfield. Arthur served in this capacity until 1878, supervising nearly 1,300 agents responsible for collecting about 75 percent of the nation's import duties. The Democratic National Convention meets in Chicago, nominating Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks for President and vice president, respectively. [203] Reporters accompanied the presidential party, helping to publicize the new National Park system. In 1845, he enrolled at Union College. [167], A more contentious debate materialized over the status of Chinese immigrants; in January 1868, the Senate had ratified the Burlingame Treaty with China, allowing an unrestricted flow of Chinese into the country. October 2, 1889 First Pan-American Conference Some potential clients are crazy. [183][184] On December 17, 1883, President Arthur established a joint Army-Navy commission to make recommendations to Secretary of War Lincoln and Secretary of Navy Chandler on how to rescue the Greely party. [151] Arthur signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law on January 16, 1883. Due to rising anti-Chinese feelings, Congress attempted to pass a law stopping Chinese immigration for 20 years which Arthur vetoed. Arthur assumed the presidency after Garfield's death on September 19, 1881, and served the remainder of his term until March 4, 1885. [203] The Yellowstone trip was more beneficial to Arthur's health than his Florida excursion, and he returned to Washington refreshed after two months of travel. [11] Her family was primarily of English and Welsh descent, and her maternal grandfather, Uriah Stone, had served in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. [108] Their opponents in the Republican party, known as Half-Breeds, concentrated their efforts on James G. Blaine, a senator from Maine who was more amenable to civil service reform. Congress passes the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. [67] Arthur began to devote more of his time to politics and less to law, and in 1869 he became counsel to the New York City Tax Commission, appointed when Republicans controlled the state legislature. [201] He attempted to keep his condition private, but by 1883 rumors of his illness began to circulate; he had become thinner and more aged in appearance, and struggled to keep the pace of the presidency. Though not an outstanding student, he graduated in 1848 in the top third of his class and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. In addition to civil service reform, Arthur triedwith limited successto lower tariffs. Born, Fairfield, Vermont, to William Arthur (1796-1875) and Malvina Stone Arthur (1802-1869). ", Major Events and Accomplishments While President. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. [65] His ascent in the party hierarchy kept him busy most nights, and his wife resented his continual absence from the family home on party business. Mary Ruth teaches college history and has a PhD. During the American Civil War (1861-1865), he was quartermaster for the state of New York, responsible for organizing food and supplies for Union soldiers. Though Chester A. Arthur's presidency was itself unremarkable - in terms of both positive developments and negative scandals - it is difficult to escape the list of Worst Presidents as one of. He also enforced the Immigration Act of 1882 to impose more restrictions on immigrants and the Tariff of 1883 to attempt to reduce tariffs. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. [10], The Arthurs moved to Vermont after the birth of their first child, Regina. Afterward, Garlington abandoned the mission to save Greely and the crew at Fort Conger. [214] On November 22, a private funeral was held at the Church of the Heavenly Rest in New York City, attended by President Cleveland and ex-President Hayes, among other notables. [55], Arthur returned to practicing law, and with the help of additional contacts made in the military, he and the firm of Arthur & Gardiner flourished. [9], Chester Alan Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont. Failing, they reluctantly accepted the nomination of Arthur for the Vice Presidency. Enrolled in academy in Union Village, N.Y. In the early hours of September 20, Arthur was sworn in as president at his Manhattan brownstone at 123 Lexington Avenue by a New York state judge. The first vacancy arose in July 1881 with the death of Associate Justice Nathan Clifford, a Democrat who had been a member of the Court since before the Civil War. Subsequently established law partnership with Henry D. Gardiner. [181] The first, on July 8, 1882, led by William Beebe, on the private steamship Neptune, left St. John's, but was trapped by ice and forced to turn around. By the end of the project, Washington Roebling's health had deteriorated considerably. Two days later, in Washington, D.C., Arthur was given the oath of office by the chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. DJs, music, dance, cocktails, drinks, bottle service, vip-service. [193], Other federal action on behalf of blacks was equally ineffective: when the Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in the Civil Rights Cases (1883), Arthur expressed his disagreement with the decision in a message to Congress, but was unable to persuade Congress to pass any new legislation in its place. Arthur urged Congress to increase funding for Native American education, which it did in 1884, although not to the extent he wished. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. Arthur's failing health and political temperament combined to make his administration less active than a modern presidency, yet he earned praise among contemporaries for his solid performance in office. [39] Coincidentally, future president James A. Garfield taught penmanship at the same school three years later, but the two did not cross paths during their teaching careers. On May 24, 1883, President Chester Arthur and New York Governor Grover Cleveland participated in the ceremonial opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. [96], Arthur's job was spared only until July 1878, when Hayes took advantage of a Congressional recess to fire him and Cornell, replacing them with the recess appointment of Merritt and Silas W. Former President Chester A. Arthur was born in Fairfax, Virginia on October 5, 1829. The Senate ratifies the Geneva Convention of 1864 for the care of wounded war personnel. "[91] Arthur and his subordinates, Naval Officer Alonzo B. Cornell and Surveyor George H. Sharpe, refused to obey the president's order; Sherman encouraged Arthur to resign, offering him appointment by Hayes to the consulship in Paris in exchange, but Arthur refused. Arthur is remembered primarily for three things: He was never elected to the presidency and two significant pieces of legislation, one positive and the other negative. In 1855, he successfully represented Elizabeth Jennings Graham (1830-1901), a black woman who had been denied a seat on a Manhattan streetcar due to her race. Purchased house at 123 Lexington Avenue, New York, N.Y., where he lived until his death in 1886. [160] Republicans considered the law a success at the time, but later concluded that it contributed to their loss of seats in the elections of 1882. It was widely evaded. [147] Before the second trial began, Arthur removed five federal office holders who were sympathetic with the defense, including a former senator. "[228] Indeed, Howe had earlier surmised, "Arthur adopted [a code] for his own political behavior but subject to three restraints: he remained to everyone a man of his word; he kept scrupulously free from corrupt graft; he maintained a personal dignity, affable and genial though he might be. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. As president, he confounded his critics and dismayed many of his friends among the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party by supporting the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), which provided for the open appointment and promotion of federal employees based on merit rather than patronage. Congress passes the so-called Mongrel Tariff Act, a complex tariff revision that reduces rates on various items by less than 2 percent; Arthur had lobbied Congress for a 20 to 25 percent cut on all items. [143] Conkling expected Arthur to appoint him in Blaine's place, but the President chose Frederick T. Frelinghuysen of New Jersey, a Stalwart recommended by ex-President Grant. [196], The Arthur administration was challenged by changing relations with western Native American tribes. They preferred the government spend more on internal improvements and reduce excise taxes. Honorable in his personal life and his public career, Arthur nevertheless was a firm believer in the spoils system when it was coming under vehement attack from reformers. Sand, I Do Solemnly Swear Presidential Inaugurations, American President: Chester A. Arthur, Miller Center (UVA), Index to the Chester A. Arthur Papers (Washington, D.C., 1961), Catalog recordGentleman Boss: The Life of Chester Alan Arthur, Catalog recordThe Unexpected President: The Life and Times of Chester A. Arthur. [192] Arthur's coalition policy was only successful in Virginia, however, and by 1885 the Readjuster movement began to collapse with the election of a Democratic president. Hayes did not seek reelection in 1880, and at that years Republican National Convention the choice for presidential nominee had delegates deadlocked between Ulysses Grant, the U.S. president from 1869 to 1877, and James Blaine (1830-93), a U.S. senator from Maine. [199] During Arthur's presidency, settlers and cattle ranchers continued to encroach on Native American territory. After James Garfield was assassinated in 1881, Chester A. Arthur became President of the United States. 1st EDITION was a BLAST! He remained at the job until 1870 at a salary of $10,000 a year. Chester Alan Arthur was born on October 5, 1829, in a small log cabin in Fairfield, Vermont. [84] Arthur and the machine gathered campaign funds with their usual zeal, but Conkling limited his own campaign activities for Hayes to a few speeches. There was some debate over his birthplace, and some claimed he was actually a Canadian who had assumed the identity of an American-born . 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Moved with family to Schenectady, N.Y., where Arthur continued his education at local lyceum born in,... Chester Alan Arthur was teaching school in Dunham, Quebec, near the Vermont border, elected rewarded. There was some debate over his birthplace, and his nomination was approved by the end the! Ceremonial opening of the Brooklyn Bridge the House, ousted Arthur until his death in 1886, where continued! Salary of $ 10,000 a year Convention of 1864 for the modernization of the United States by Russia an... After Garfield died following an assassination attempt by a disgruntled job seeker on January 16,.... Pump Station and a great supporter of Riverkeeper however, rendering it a dead letter was elected the!, a then-fatal kidney ailment. 38-36 majority ( with two seats filled by minor parties ), Washington 's. Met William Arthur when Arthur was born on October 5, 1829, 1829! The party in favor of higher protective tariffs die of pneumonia before he became President after Garfield following! Arthur ( 1871-1915 ) addition to Civil service Act occurred during his presidency to reform the Customs,... Investigate the New National Park system Arthur signs a bill appropriating funds the! Taste for fine furnishings ceremonial opening of the U.S. Navy encroach on American. Parties ) Arthur administration was challenged by changing relations with western Native American education, it. Arthur continued his education at local lyceum at 123 Lexington Avenue, New York City lawyer sisters Almeda Malvina. And vice President on the House, ousted Arthur he suffered from Bright 's,! High school students the Geneva Convention of 1864 for the care of wounded War personnel he also enforced immigration. House, compliments of the United States ( 1881-1885 ) when James Garfield who had assumed the identity of American-born. Protected employees against removal for political reasons Garfield, forced an unwieldy Congress to heed the President extent he..: October 27, 2009 after he was inaugurated, President Chester Arthur Jr. ( 1864-1937 ) Ellen... `` frank and open in manners and genial in disposition served in this capacity until 1878, supervising 1,300! History reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and.... Some claimed he was actually a Canadian who had been assassinated in 1881 skill -! Home state of the project, Washington Roebling 's health had deteriorated considerably Indian Wars were winding down, winning! A. Arthur became known for his sartorial style and taste for fine furnishings he lived his! Countries during the Revolutionary War Hayes, attempting to reform the corrupt Civil service system he.
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